Gospel and cultures

Subsection 1.2

"For us the gospel speaks in many tongues. We cannot speak together as Reformed Christians without knowing at once that the gospel has taken root in the various and diverse cultures in which our churches bear witness to the gospel... The incarnation of Jesus Christ demands that we take culture seriously: for there is no "flesh" that is not nourished by a culture. No "word" can be heard that is not the language of a culture... We recognize that the gospel illuminates culture...Culture also illuminates our understanding of the gospel. Different cultures can perceive in the gospel that which other cultures had failed to perceive."

Seoul 1989, Proceedings, pp.177f.

For a long time a particular theology, with a particular history and born in a particular culture (that of the west), was seen, and presented by western missionaries, as universal. But as churches in the south became independent, the role of their own cultures in appropriating the gospel, articulating their theology and shaping their Christian community came under serious discussion. Christians from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Latin America, and the Pacific countries recognize that their faith has dimensions beyond that which they received from the western Judeo-Christian stream. As Christians in different times and places have always done, they are striving today to enrich their understanding of the gospel with their own cultural and religious heritage.

The question of gospel and cultures continues to engage WARC member churches for many reasons. Secularization challenges all faiths, including Christianity. Other faiths develop missionary strategies. Experimental Christian movements and communities force the institutional churches to reflect on their way of being Christian. New voices (women, laity, youth, traditionally marginalized groups) enter the conversation. Faced with the globalization of technology and communication, people turn to their cultural roots in search of identity. In recent years, in conjunction with a wider ecumenical study sponsored by the World Council of Churches, local and regional reflections were undertaken by WARC, culminating in an international Reformed consultation at Tana Toraja in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, in February 1996.¹

Understanding gospel and culture

We begin by addressing the various ways in which we understand the words "gospel" and "culture". Neither concept is easy to define.

Culture

It is an elusive business to say what a culture is. In many languages, the word "culture" is derived from the Latin verb "colere." It is a rich and multilayered term. It means to plough the earth, to build and inhabit a house, to revere, to worship, to honour, to respect, to pay homage. Is culture coextensive with a geographical area or with a language or language-cluster? Is it a function of shared histories or common customs? What does it mean for several places to share a culture, or for one place to have many cultures or subcultures?

"Culture" is a term that once belonged to the observer: the anthropologist looking at a tribe or a region, or the historian or art historian studying empires or iconography. But the reality indicated by the term has become, in our time, a matter of self-conscious identification, a way of saying how we belong in the place where we are: our particular shared form-of-existence within the community we recognize as "our own." Culture is a totality of being: how we live-believe-hope-die. It has many aspects:

• it is a system of rules that are crucial for our attitudes and our vision of the world and our way of life, it is a set of values that help us to make decisions in the world (cognitive/affective);
• it is an attitude and ethos, a rite and praxis (performative);
• it is the metaphor of people in an ongoing conversation, it is a set of social arrangements that prevail, it is what gives people an identity (relational);
• it is a strategy, a "tool box" for coping with challenges (functional).

All cultures are under theological scrutiny. In the past, many "non-Christian" cultures were rejected by Christians because of theological and missiological assumptions. In the west, culture is so enmeshed with remnants of the old Christendom and with the global free market that it is difficult to identify culture clearly, let alone criticize the relationship between gospel and cultures. At the same time, many traditional cultures are declining in the face of globalization. Some cultures have been lost. Others are threatened by displacement for economic gain or militarism. Culture is a human product, where power politics are a real problem; and the gospel challenges us on the use and abuse of power. Even when there is theological openness, eg with regard to the ordination of women, culture may impose certain constraints. Culture embodies human identity, and can either affirm or deny human integrity.

Gospel

For many Christians it may be odd to ask, "what is gospel?" Yet it is important to explore the meaning of this term in relation to cultures. Gospel means good news. For Christians, the good news is intrinsically related to the story of Jesus, received as good news by his followers and believed and lived out. The gospel has to do with our vision of life and our way of life.

For some Christians it is important to stress that their ultimate identity is in Jesus Christ. Others stress that the gospel is something to be lived, and not just doctrines and creeds: such approaches can easily reduce the good news to an ideology. Some emphasize that it is a liberating force, freeing us, for example, from a negative past. Others say that it concerns not only eternal life but also life now with our brothers and sisters. For others it is the righteousness that comes through Jesus Christ.

All thinking about gospel as good news needs to be revitalized and reinterpreted in the light of contemporary thought-forms in various contexts and cultures. The gospel liberates us from our restrictive images of God. The awareness of the many "false gospels" in human cultures has been heightened by cross-cultural encounter. God is already present in all cultures but transcends all cultural images. The four gospels in the New Testament exemplify the diversity of interpretations that arises as Christian communities try to reflect the gospel in their own contexts.

Models of relationship between gospel and cultures

Various models have existed within the church historically, and can be detected in any conversation on the topic. Some are explicit and "dogmatic." Others are implicit (like the unquestioned acceptance of the blue-eyed, Caucasian Jesus) and attitudinal. Nineteenth-century missiological models often equated the gospel with western culture and regarded other cultures as heathen and incompatible with the gospel.

Today a theological shift has taken place. Western theology is no longer the universal norm for understanding the gospel. Particular interpretations of the gospels are emerging from cultures or subcultures employing their own distinctive images and experience, eg Minjung theology from Korea, Dalit theology from India, feminist theology, Afro-American womanist theology, coconut theology from the Pacific, bamboo theology in Asia and among Asian expatriates, liberation theologies from Latin America, and mango tree theology from Bali. These theologies are redefining the relationship between gospel and cultures.

Sometimes the gospel affirms and empowers cultures, sometimes it criticizes and challenges cultures, sometimes it shapes and changes cultures. The gospel is both embodied in cultures and at the same time transcends them.

The relationship is probably better represented by interactive ways of speaking. The gospel interacts with cultures, and cultures interact with the gospel. Gospel and culture illumine each other. Gospel and cultures empower each other. Through various cultural expressions, such as art, music and dance, cultures enrich the gospel. Always there is interaction as communities wrestle to be faithful in their witness at their particular time, in their particular place.

Authentic witness within each culture (mission)

Authentic witness to the gospel requires awareness of the differences between cultures. "Cultural literacy" is a helpful metaphor. When sharing the gospel across cultures, one must be aware of the presuppositions of one's own culture and belief systems and guard against cultural bias. One must become literate in the culture of the other. An often-unacknowledged cross-cultural conflict can be seen in pastors trained with western exegetical skills who attempt to teach the gospel to grassroots people who read and live the gospel in their own contexts. Those who are formally trained in theology must remember that authenticity of biblical interpretation is not the preserve of theological learning. As grassroots people read and live the gospel, their interpretation comes alive when they are set free by the spirit of the gospel in celebration, festivity, and dancing, and in struggle against economic and social oppression.

Voices from the regions

Asia: For most Asians, religion is a way of life, not so much being part of an institution as being part of the local faith community. It is possible to hold on to certain personal beliefs and practices, but such beliefs will not keep one away from the social and communal obligations. The plurality of beliefs accommodates individuals' views and opinions within certain social norm and traditions. Can and should Christianity fit into such an ethos in Asia? This is the challenge to each of the Christian communities in Asia as it wrestles to be more rooted in the Asian soil.

Pacific: The gospel value of forgiveness can be witnessed to in a powerful way when the cultural forgiveness rituals of the Pacific Islanders are employed. After a traffic accident recently in New Zealand where two small Tongan children were killed by a Samoan driver, the Tongan community approached the Samoan community with traditional gifts and a request for reconciliation.

Europe: The gospel puts the individualistic tendency of our culture under judgement, asking how policies both at the political and personal levels support or damage those with whom we live. The more extreme forms of laissez-faire capitalism must face the evangelical critique of our belonging together in mutual responsibility.

The basic criteria for reasoned discourse are among the gifts to human community that the gospel nurtures. Postmodernist consciousness is sceptical about any objective truth. And we recognise that languages and reality are bound up in such complex ways that we need to hear one another's "truths". But the endeavour of mutual understanding is enriched by the conviction that truth can be discerned, and that we do not inhabit isolated thought-forms, but a world where meaning is a shared possibility.

We in Europe are in a period of transition, with massive shifts in employment patterns in cities and in rural life. There are two "unfaithful" responses to that. One is to be defensive and hostile about all change, to try to reimpose the fixed securities of a bygone age. The other is to try to "organise the future" to prevent the awful silence of a present that does not yet know where it is called to go. But it may be that the prophetic word to the churches in Europe is simply not to panic: to do realistically what we can do with the talent that is ours, but to renounce messianic aspiration.

Caribbean and North America: God's grace, manifest both in creation and redemption, calls us to be faithful to the human communities from which our identity arises. The life-enhancing customs, values, purposes and ways of relating to each other that constitute human cultures are the effect and the result of God's grace. God's grace is particularly present in the redeeming message of God's love that we call gospel.

Africa: One way of tackling the issue was to show the commonalities between some key African values and the Bible. The theology of life and covenant is one example. Several anthropological studies have shown the importance of these two key notions in African culture. What is good is what preserves and sustains life, what is evil is what threatens life. We are a covenanted people who honour very ancient bonds, bonds between the living and the dead, and even between all the elements of the ecosystem. In practical terms this translates into mutual respect, deep solidarity, loyalty and kinship.

Latin America and the Caribbean: To install Protestant cultural models in Latin America and the Caribbean requires that we distinguish "culture" from the "dominant culture", and abandon the old missionary paradigm with its idea of penetration. We need a new concept of mission, which speaks about cultural insertion. We must integrate the popular culture and the gospel (literature, art, liturgy, etc.), emphasize the responsibility of the Protestant minorities in political representation and cultural interchange, and respect the native cultures of the region.

Theological questions

1. Is there a core gospel, transcending any culture, that can be formulated in an abstract way apart from its cultural roots?
2. How is the authority of scripture understood in relation to the many cultures of the earth? How does the contextualization of the gospel conflict with authoritatively-accepted interpretations?
3. Does the use of local traditional elements rather than bread and wine for communion alter the theological content of the sacrament? Is the historical context in which the Last Supper was celebrated determinative for all future celebrations of the event?

Local congregations in pluralistic societies (education)

In every culture the good news of Jesus Christ unfolds like a flower, each petal releasing new fragrance into the world of God's creation. In every culture Christians seek to nurture the whole people of God for witness and service; in every culture the good news of Jesus Christ is communicated in particular shapes and forms according to the context. Local congregations in every place should recognize and value the many identities in their cultural context: racial, ethnic, linguistic, gender and generational. Educators in congregations and theological institutions need to challenge oppression within the Christian community and the larger culture, especially when this is based on interpretations of scripture that discriminate against particular groups of Christians or other faith traditions.

Voices from the regions

Caribbean and North America: In the Caribbean, the people created a religion of the "backyard" along with a religion of the "living room". The "living room" religion was intended to reflect western culture, to impress westerners, and to enable survival in a western-dominated society. The "backyard" religion permitted the survival of the religions and cultures of the "others", and fostered a culture of resistance in a hostile environment.

Within the next 20 years Anglo-Saxon and Caucasian Canadians may well be racial ethnic minorities within established churches. In anticipation of that shift, many denominations have begun rewriting their Christian education and worship resources, altering their curriculum and staffing at theological and training schools, and establishing new administrative structures. Within the Asian Canadian community, bamboo theology is developing new connections with African Caribbean cultures as it explores the nature of strength, community and beauty.

In the USA there is a similar demographic shift. Within the PCUSA, Korean- American churches are growing. Within all denominations, feminist, womanist, mujerista (Hispanic) and Asian-American women and scholars create new patterns. African-American, Native American, lesbian and gay theologians construct new visions of God's justice and peace, while creation-centred theologians explore God's requirements for human relationships with the earth and all its peoples.

Asia: A community needs a perimeter to function as a cohesive group. But when communal identity is overemphasized it may lead to segregation and separation. Christians in Asia have to some extent fallen into this trap. The caste system, various forms of racism, classism, patriarchy, gender barriers, etc. have been critically challenged in the larger society, sometimes with Christianity playing a significant role. Fences and church walls cannot be used to escape such social and cultural revolutions in the name of faith and its claim for distinct identity.

Latin America: The incarnation of the gospel in Latin America and the Caribbean cannot take place through dominating cultures, expressions of the exploitation of the poor and oppressed. The hermeneutic place of the message of salvation must be the popular culture, since the salvific action of God in history is always liberating and humanizing and is therefore directed preferentially at "the poor of the earth".

Europe: It is true, of course, that such questioning of complacency already arises for the churches within Europe from various groups who deplore their own marginalization: feminists; the base Christian communities of urban Europe; sexual minorities; and, if they can be bothered, the young. But these are too easily written off as "exceptions" or "troublemakers". It is in the sense of identity between the marginalized of the rest of the world church and the marginalized within Europe that there is likely to be a breakthrough - one which can use the creative, restless energy of young people with their hope of better things, and put it in a global context.

Theological questions

1. How, if at all, does the Reformed insistence on sola scriptura continue to function in a multicultural, contextual theological conversation?
2. If salvation is available outside the church and the Spirit of God is not confined within its walls, why should we evangelize and why does the church exist?

Empowerment of identities in community by the gospel (liberation)

As human beings, we are all made in the image or likeness of God (Gen 1). This is the biblical foundation on which, as Reformed Christians, we evaluate cultures and political, theological and other expressions of identity. Self-centredness dehumanizes and destroys others. Conversion to Christ is meant to be a liberating experience. It means freedom from self-righteousness. Our common identity is formed, and repeatedly questioned, by our calling to be true to the reign of God. The vision of equality expressed in Gal 3.28 demands that every kind of dualism leading to segregation or discrimination must be rejected.

Whenever a cultural group absolutizes its own identity it falls into idolatry. The histories of South Africa, former Yugoslavia, and the Balkans, among others, show the disaster of defending cultural identity by absolutizing it over against others. The histories of indigenous peoples and their cultures show the disasters created by a cultural and religious imperialism that absolutizes a particular form of Christianity.

God has been present throughout the earth in all cultures before the mission movement. A creation-centred theology offers healing to the broken people of cultures who have been crushed by western Christian imperialism. Interpreting the gospel through the idea of a crucified God empowers the powerless and oppressed people whose suffering is embodied in Godself. At the same time, emphasis on the resurrected Christ gives strength and courage to those who suffer oppression.

Voices from the regions

Africa: Women constitute more than half the sky if we look at the everyday life of the African churches. However, they are excluded from the decision-making process, and are also the victims of injustice rooted in the surrounding culture and aggravated by male-dominated organized religion. The first claims for mutuality and equality in the church were represented as an alien influence coming from the north. But more and more voices have joined in lifting up what is obviously an issue of justice. What is at stake here is not a choice between African culture and western radical feminism, but our own integrity and consistency. If, during the colonial period, we claimed that all human beings are created in the resemblance of God (imago Dei) but that we were being oppressed by white people simply because we were created a different colour, how can we not now listen to these new challenges?

Asia: When a community consciously searches for its cultural heritage, it is looking for those values that sustained it for generations. This also involves identifying cultural elements that hinder wholeness of life, and removing them. While such a quest is necessary, Christians also have to keep in mind its implications. If one community's cultural upsurge is perceived as oppressive or discriminatory by others, an attempt should be made to create a healthy atmosphere through dialogue. This will avoid cultural triumphalism and bigotry.

Caribbean and North America: The dominant culture in the United States tends to dress a rampant individualism in the garb of democratic values. For many in the dominant culture, capitalism is equated with Christianity. The myth of the rugged individual can be seen to flow from the idea of the entrepreneur. If one works hard enough, one will succeed; and one's destiny is determined by one's individual efforts, and not by anything anyone else might have contributed. The Reformed tradition roundly critiques such "works-righteousness" and its resultant judgement on the poor and disadvantaged as undeserving. Democratic values mean a responsible use of wealth and power that looks to the common good. The widening chasm between rich and poor within and between countries undermines our democratic intentions.

We note that in both Chinese and Japanese characters, "democracy" is communal, not individual. We note that in Puerto Rico democracy supports the formation of coalitions which can block those who have acquired enormous political and economic power. In Canada we are learning from native people how they govern themselves.

Pacific: There is an inherent danger that culture can be idolized to the point that it stands unchallenged by the gospel of Jesus Christ. In Kiribati, the Council of Old Men, when challenged by the gospel over a particular issue, responds by saying: "Yes, that is the gospel, but the Council of Men takes the decisions for this community".

Theological questions

1. How do we develop new theological understandings of power when the divine-human relationship is imaged as a hierarchical power relationship?
2. Who determines the theological bases on which criticism is levelled against abuses within or across cultures?
3. How do we give a theological account of the liberating power that is effective outside of Christianity? Is a creation-centred theology better able than other approaches to open us to God's liberating presence in all communities?

One gospel - many expressions (cross-cultural sharing)

There is no one sacred language and no one sacred place. Wherever people gather in spirit and in truth, God's Spirit is there. The people gathered in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost were people from different communities with different cultural identities. Philip's encounter with the Ethiopian eunuch, Peter's meeting with Cornelius, the debate at the Jerusalem Council, and Paul's sermon in Athens all testify to the presence of God's Spirit in all places. The gospel is like a mineral stone that is honed and polished, reflecting its beauty through a multitude of cultural facets.

Voices from the regions

Europe: One of the difficulties in global cooperation is the competitiveness and apparent incompatibility of the major world faiths. One reading of the logos tradition in the Gospel of John suggests the presence of God or Christ in non-explicit contexts. This suggestion provokes major internal conflicts within Christianity about the presence or absence of God in other faiths; and a range of challenges about how members of cultures that are mediated to them by other faith traditions share in the gospel, or don't. The conversation between Christians about gospel and cultures necessitates an equally serious interfaith discussion. Even a pan-Christian consensus on the issues (which is unlikely) would be parochial, in global terms, if it did not make us register the "sectarianism" of Christian perspectives from the point of view of other world faiths.

Caribbean and North America: We understand God and ourselves through images that are based on languages that, in turn, are our civilizations' conditioned ways of perceiving, constructing and expressing the world. We affirm the gift of multiple civilizations and languages and the plurality of images and understandings of God and ourselves, which offer us fuller appreciation of our Creator and our own createdness.

Pacific: How will we find the truth together? There are five texts to help us: the stories of the Bible; the God-given stories in the creation itself - in the land, the sea, the sky; the stories of the ancient cultures of the world whose people experienced God long before the missionaries came; our own stories of the living God in our midst; and the insights of the communities in Oceania.

The truth in the gospel emerges most clearly when we act together to share with God in the transforming of the creation into the kindom of God.² The truth will always be earthed in our context and our issues. The people of the Pacific say: "God created the fenua.³ It is land, sea, sky and it is us! It is sacred. Stop the French tests in the Pacific". The truth for the peoples of Oceania and the rest of the Pacific will always have within it this interconnection between the earth and its people. As the earth dies, the people die.

How will the truth be told? It will be told in song and dance, in drumming, in pictures, in rituals and ancient customs, in words, and in the costly life of the people. Western missionaries have often lacked respect for the manifold ways of telling the truth, because western culture is so centred on words. The people of Oceania have special gifts to bring to the churches, in laughter, passion, energy, colour and song.

Theological questions

1. The centrality of the local church has the potential for creating problems in the development of a community of communities. What are the theological issues involved here?
2. In the Reformed tradition, we affirm that "God alone is God." Therefore all creeds, confessions, cultural assumptions are held with a certain tentativeness and cannot be absolutized. Does this stance of humility and common subjection before God create the atmosphere in which cross-cultural dialogue can flourish and provide the basis for developing a cross-cultural hermeneutic?
3. Is national identity to be seen as an expression of culture in the "gospel and cultures" debate?

Notes