The ordination of women in Egypt

Amaal Tawfiek

A glimpse at women's roles throughout Egyptian history

During a press conference in Cairo in 1988 held when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature, Egyptian playwright Naguib Mahfouz was asked by a media reporter for his opinion about Egyptian women. He answered:

"The woman is the greatest among God's creation; for her different roles in the history of Egypt; for her struggle, faithfulness and chasteness."

Later in the same year, the well-known journalist-writer Mustafa Ameen wrote in his column in the daily Cairo newspaper, Al Akhbar:

"The Egyptian woman is the best Minister of Economy in the world as she can balance her family's income in spite of the inflation rate and the crazy prices!"

These two statements by Mahfouz and Mustafa Ameen reflect some aspects of the Egyptian woman's life. Both writers highly esteem her. To what extent is this high esteem applicable to various aspects of life in the Egyptian society?

Women represent about 50% of the Egyptian population (57 million in a 1992 estimate). But what is the percentage of the representation of women in the different activities of society?

The church is a part of the society and the status of women in the church is affected by the social traditional situation of the society.

Women in ancient Egypt

The Egyptian trend of thought is an outcome of social and cultural traditions throughout history: Pharaonic, Greek, Roman, Christian, Turkish, Arabic, Islamic, French, British and American. Throughout history, the church kept her faith and wrestled with various social and cultural traditions aimed at maintaining biblical and theological doctrines and spreading the good news without conceding of the church's principal values.¹ Life was more or less equally shared by men and women in the pre-historic stage of the "hunter-gatherer" society.² Women enjoyed equal rights in social, political, and religious areas during the Pharaonic period. An outstanding example of this is Queen Nifartari, wife of Pharaoh Ekhnaton (1369 B.C.) who shared with him Egypt's rule, all of his trips, and established with him the monastic religion worshipping Aton, God of the Sun, instead of all the adored gods and goddesses of the time.³ There were also some women who served as clergy members of the Pharaonic temples.⁴

Many women during the Pharaonic era were literate. They appreciated literature and art and shared many public posts. Family life was well established. In most marriage cases, a man married one wife and she had the right to ask for a divorce if her husband mistreated her.⁵

Pharaonic culture was later exposed to the Greek culture during Roman times. This affected the status of Pharaonic women as the Greek culture did not esteem them as highly.⁶

Women's positions during the Christian era

Through Jesus Christ the woman was given respect. He corrected the Hebrew social demeaning view of women which insisted that women must be covered, hidden or protected in order not to be a temptation to men.

Jesus said, "I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with has already committed adultery with her in his heart (Matthew 5:28). By this, Jesus is clearing the woman's side, and condemns the man's sinful eyes.⁷

In Christianity, both women and men are created twice, the first creation "So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them;...God saw everything that He had made, and indeed it was very good."(Genesis 1:27, 31); and the second creation which shows that unless one is born from above, he cannot see the kingdom of God and that that which is born of Spirit is Spirit. (John. 3:3-6).

The first creation is physical and there is a clear distinction between male and female sexes, but with no partiality, for both express the image of God. However, the second creation has no distinction between male and female, for it is a purely spiritual creation. "...there is no longer male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus." (Galatians 3:28)⁸

Ancestors of the church differed on the status of women in the church. Clement of Alexandria (150 A.D.) confirmed that men and women are spiritually equal,⁹ as women have the same potential because men and women have the same faith in God, the same hope, the same love and the same obedience to God, and both belong to the same church. Men and women both strive towards the same salvation receiving equal grace along the way, and both have the same divine Teacher.

Although he gave evidence of the importance of the order of widows and the role of women in the Church in general,¹⁰ Origen of Alexandria still put women in a lower level than men in the Church, despite his positive attitude towards the ordination of deaconesses.

The ordination of the deaconesses took place probably by the end of the 4th century.¹¹

Ancestors of the church adopted the teachings of Jesus and tried to apply them to their societies.¹² During the 17th century, Quakers and Baptists called for women to preach and serve. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Puritans gave women a role in worshipping and teaching. They stressed the woman's equivalent ability to get to subtle spiritual depths.¹³

Through Turkish rule,¹⁴ the "Hareem" system was introduced, reaching its peak during the 15th century, when all the Turkish Sultan Khalif's wives, mistresses, concubines and women servants (between 300 and 1,200 women) were isolated and under the authority of the Sultan's mother, guarded by eunuchs.¹⁵

Although this "Hareem" system was officially abolished by the end of the rule of the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid in 1909 A.D.,¹⁶ it still has its effect on the "value" of the woman today. The expression "Hareem", which means wife of,or the woman who belongs to Mr. X, is still in use in some societies of the Arab countries. If a woman visits Saudi Arabia from any other country in the world, she will not be allowed in some parts of Saudi lands except with her "Mehrem" or a man to accompany her in order to protect her. This man is either her father, husband or brother (it may be her younger brother).

Feminist's roles and Egyptian women in public life

Struggle

Egyptian feminists of both Muslim and Christian men and women began their struggle during the French Expedition to Egypt in 1798 A.D. Islamic religious leaders permitted women to take part in the public demonstrations against the French invaders in a national struggle that was considered to be the "Holy War" against the enemies of the Islamic religion. This was similar to what happened in the dawn of Islamic era in the 7th century A.D.¹⁷ This demonstration was the actual first step that led women to public life.

In Egypt, it has been argued that the participation of women in public life is good for both sexes. It strengthens the family and also helps society at large by increasing the number of citizens upon whose resources and talents the country may draw.¹⁸

In pursuit of an enlarged public forum, feminists everywhere have faced opposition from women as well as men, and have had to make numerous choices regarding ideology, specific goals and tactics.¹⁹ Topics among the feminist's demands to uplift the life of women have included education, the right for work, political rights, and reform of the Personal Status Laws to protect the women from polygamy.

Among the feminists of the 19th and 20th centuries were Hind Nowfal, and Qasim Amin, who is considered to be the father of the women's emancipation in Egypt. He published two books, Women's Emancipation and The New Woman. Both of these books focus on the women's cause. Other feminists include Fatma Rashid, Malak Hifni Nassif, and Safyia Zagloul, who led a women's public demonstration against British occupation during the national revolution in 1919. Hoda Sharawi was the first woman in Cairo to take off her veil (1923), leading other women to be unveiled and announcing that the veil is a symbol of the slavery of women.

Other feminists later on were Ciza Nabarawy, Rose-al-Yousef, Dorria Shafiq and Jehan El Sadat, who had an active role during the rule of her husband Anwar El Sadat, the former President of Egypt. Jehan El Sadat was behind the reform of the Personal Status Law. Another active feminist since the 1960's is Nawal Essadawy.

Fruits

Feminist efforts defending women's rights were initiated by the aristocrats and fulfilled by the middle class. The fruits have been gained by all, including the grass roots.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century, feminists continued to work on demands to improve the social and economic conditions of women and vied for leadership with political feminists who advocated direct political participation by women and reform of the Personal Status Law, as well as laws regulating marriage, divorce and child custody.²⁰ Many fruits were gained by women, especially in education and working fields.

The 1952 revolution started a new phase in the life of Egypt, as the new constitution of 1956 gave women the right to vote. From 1956 on, women were given more and more opportunities in Egyptian public life as many Egyptian women started their own businesses, entered the Parliament, and were appointed to Cabinet posts. For example, Dr. Amaal Othman was appointed in 1977 as Minister of Social Affairs and was succeeded by another two women, one after the other. Another woman became an ambassador, and others are in the lower level of the diplomatic sphere. There are women teaching at all levels in education. There are now female journalists, writers, artists, pilots, airport police officers, air hostesses, lawyers, etc. Women occupy posts in most life activities.

How can this be applied to religious activities? How many Egyptian women are in religious posts?!

"Setback"

By 1988 Muslim religious extremists called for working women to go back home. It is a controversial issue which is still under discussion in the National Assembly (parliament) and in the media. Dr. Fawzia Abdul Sattar, a Muslim member of the National Assembly described this call as "an acute cultural setback for the society".

Reasons given for this call for women to go back home were religious, economic and social. It was to stop women from mingling with men in public life, and to give men more of a chance to get jobs by means of preventing competition between men and women for the limited job opportunities available. This would also lead to more care for the children and homes.

It is true that for any working woman, moving between the various circles outside and inside her home, requires many transformations both internally and externally. A working woman may feel torn between the conflicting demands as everybody wants more than she can give,²¹ especially if she is not equipped with the necessary facilities for life, such as decent transportation to and from her work, and good kitchen facilities.

Women in the Reformed Church in Egypt

A historical glimpse of the church in Egypt

Christianity began in Egypt in the first century A.D. when some Jewish Christian converts arrived to Egypt after Pentecost. Their pioneering ministry was followed up and completed by Saint Mark, who was martyred in Alexandria in the year 68 A.D. Most Christians in Egypt belong to three main denominations: Coptic Orthodox (the majority), Coptic Protestant and Coptic Catholic. (The word Coptic means Egyptian).

The Presbyterian Church in Egypt, established in 1863 A.D., is the largest among the Protestant churches. It has about one-half million members. 200 congregations are spread across Egypt in eight presbyteries spanning from Alexandria, on the Mediterranean Sea in the north, to Aswan in the south. All these presbyteries are supervised by the Synod of the Nile, the highest authority of the Presbyterian Church in Egypt. The Synod has ten councils in charge of different activities of the church.

Since the establishment of the Presbyterian Church in Egypt, its leaders have given women respect and esteem. They have cared for women's education by establishing church schools and institutions. Women in the church were given the right to vote in their local church elections (to choose the pastor, elders and deacons) even before they got their political vote in 1956.

The Women's Union

The Women's Union was established in 1954 for the purpose of bringing together the activities of women in approximately 200 Presbyterian churches across Egypt into an organized, united effort to give them more strength and vitality. In effect, this action was the church's full acknowledgement of the importance of the woman's role in the church.

The Women's Union Objectives and Goals

1. To help women of the Egyptian Church to live a wholesome, integrated life in their family, church and society.
2. To stress the value of being a Christian and the importance of this in a multi-religious society.
3. To create a strong sense of cooperation and fellowship between women of various Protestant churches across the country.
4. To provide women with the needed training in areas of leadership, and to encourage them to use their talents to their fullest degree.
5. To promote ecumenical fellowship between Protestant churches and other churches in Egypt, such as Orthodox and Catholic.
6. To work together in different projects according to the needs of the church.

In addition to these objectives and goals, the Women's Union added another five objectives and goals during the Ecumenical Decade of Church Solidarity with Women (1988-1989). They are:

1. Helping the Presbyterian woman to know her faith doctrine based on the word of God.
2. Uplifting the woman to develop her different aspects of life: personal, cultural, social, economic, and spiritual. This is to empower her to fulfil actively her role in her home, church, work and society at large.
3. Training women to equip them for their role in serving Jesus Christ. As representatives of half of the society of the church, women must have a more positive role in the church service.
4. Appealing to the church leaders to fulfil the work of one Body of Jesus Christ by enabling women to have effective sharing in all levels of decision making.
5. Calling for the ordination of women who are called by God to be ordained for His Service.

The Ordination of Women in Egypt: Is It Licit?

Although the issue of ordaining women as pastors has never been discussed by the Synod of the Nile, or even hinted at, the Presbyterian woman has her ministry in different areas in the church such as teaching in Sunday School (for children), speaking and preaching in different meetings during the week and sometimes on Sunday evening services, leading and moderating some meetings, teaching in training courses and lecturing in the family and young people's camps.

Women have been attending the seminary since 1967. About sixty Presbyterian women have graduated and one of them was ordained in the US after she immigrated from Egypt. Most of the others are involved in different ministries without being ordained.

The Synod, at its session number 100 held in November 1990, issued a progressive decision (No. 108) stating that:

• In each of the 200 Presbyterian churches in Egypt, the Local Church Board, which includes the pastor and elders, must include representatives of women and young people from that local church.
• To represent women (and young people) on the Presbytery Boards of the eight different Presbyteries.
• To add to the membership of the Synod (in its General Sessions) a woman (and leader of young people) from each presbytery.

In addition to this decision by the Synod, it was decided during the same session in November 1990, to include a woman (chosen by the Women's Union) in the membership of each of the ten councils of the Synod. The Women's Union, as a co-working body with the different councils of the Synod, has seconded (by election) a woman for each council.

Thus far, few local churches have implemented the Synod's decision for women's membership on the local church boards. In some presbyteries, it is a controversial issue as well.

Is ordination necessary?

In addition to enabling women to offer full service for the Lord when they are ordained, ordination equips women in the procedural area of the Synod. Members who can elect and who are eligible must be ordained pastors or ordained elders. As men make up half (1/4 million) of the Presbyterian Church, it is fair enough that they should not carry by themselves all the honourable responsibility in the church, as women (the other half) are willing and ready to mutually assume the task.

When ordained women have official representation in the Synod, they can express their needs. Their official representation enriches the general opinion as points of view from both men and women are exchanged or discussed. In addition, their representation as ordained persons supports objectivity in the discussion of some issues.

Above all, the ordination of women and their unrestricted limits in the service of the church emphasizes our unity in Jesus Christ.

Local efforts towards ordination of women

One of the thirty-three local Presbyterian churches on Cairo ordained two women elders and five women deaconesses in 1970. Another church in Assiut ordained two women deaconesses in 1974. The ordination of the two women elders brought controversy, as both the Presbytery of Cairo and the Synod opposed the ordination.

Dr. Rev. Samuel Habib, the present President of the Protestant Church in Egypt (17 denominations) was the General Secretary of the Synod in 1974. At the Synod's invitation, he initiated a study on the issue of the ordination of women by calling for biblical studies. Thirteen pastors made their research on this topic and their research was published in a book titled Is it Licit to Ordain Women? This book was published by Dar Ethaqafa in Cairo. Dar Ethaqafa is a Christian publishing house which belongs to the Coptic Evangelical Organisation for Social Service (CEOSS). In his capacity as the General Director of CEOSS and as the General Secretary of the Synod, Dr. Rev. Samuel Habib dedicated that book to members of the Synod's 84th Session in 1974.

Only four of the thirteen pastors opposed the ordination, of women while the majority found no biblical opposition to ordaining women as elders. In many places in the book, the pastors' research affirmed that God created men and women as equal bearers of His image (Genesis 1:26-27). He accepts them equally in Jesus-Christ (Galatians 3:28) and He poured out his Holy Spirit upon all flesh, sons and daughters, without discrimination (Joel 2:28-29 and Acts 2:17-18). Gifts of the Holy Spirit are also equal for both (1 Corinthians 12:14, Ephesians 4:7-16, 1 Peter 4:11 and Romans 12:1-8).²² This book, the first of its kind in Arabic in Egypt, is a valuable achievement in paving the way for women's ordination in Egypt. Still, no other women have been ordained as elders and very few local congregations ordained deaconesses.

In 1988, Dr. Rev. Samuel Habib wrote a book titled The Woman in Church and Society in which he dealt with the effects of tradition and culture on women's roles in society and in the church. This opened up doors for a more positive attitude towards the biblical understanding of women's role in service of the church.

In many of his teachings from the pulpit, Dr. Habib emphasises the equality of men and women in Jesus and the equality that should exist in the church. There are other pastors, elders and lay people who are positive towards the ordination of women as well.

As Kassim Amin is considered to be the Father of the feminists in Egypt, Samuel Habib can be considered the father of the call for equality of women and men in serving our Lord in Egypt.

Looking forward

During its 101st session in December 1991, the Synod of the Nile issued decision number 159 which calls for biblical research on women's ordination to be worked on by Presbyterian bodies and individuals. Upon receiving these studies, a general conference will be convened to study the issue. Participants of this conference will include pastors and lay leaders.

Women are a dynamic force capable of enabling society to achieve love and understanding. They are available for service and witness wherever and whenever necessary in the church and society. Since the church is the place that embodies the will of Jesus Christ to assist in the achievement of the humanity of every individual, whether men or women, the church should provide women with opportunities to share with men in the service of the church at all levels and to testify to the love of Christ and his redemptive work in the world. These opportunities can be provided through the ordination of women, not only as deaconesses and elders but also as pastors, affirming that the order to serve is equal for both men and women.

"Whoever speaks must do so as one speaking the very words of God; whoever serves must do so with the strength that God supplies, so that God may be glorified in all things through Jesus Christ. To him belong the glory and the power forever and ever. Amen." (1 Peter 4:11)

Notes