Leadership of women in the early Christian church

A presentation with guests from Corinth

Ursel Rosenhäger

Genesis and background
In dialogue with the Bible: hermeneutical deliberations

Theology becomes alive when it responds to questions of our life. I affirm the Bible not just as an historical document but as inspired scripture for the Christian community today. Its authority lies in the form of its witness, which already represents a lively debate.

Hermeneutical discussion has shown that there is no such thing as value-free, "objective" exegesis. Every interpretation is influenced extraordinarily by one's cultural, sociological background and values. Especially liberation theologies have insisted on the importance of disclosing one's background. Feminist hermeneutics even goes one step further, claiming the experience of women as a new hermeneutical key.

With Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, I affirm the "discipleship of equals" as the hermeneutical framework. In this regard Galatians 3:28 represents the central assertion from which I value all passages of the Bible.

Motivation and resources

Antoinette Wire motivated me to write this "presentation with guests from Corinth." In the "unfinished postscript" of her careful research titled The Women Prophets in Corinth she asks for "a reconstruction in rhetoric", for giving voice to these women. She refers to Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, who has named "historical imagination" as the final step in exegesis. This is not an easy task, it requires careful "rereading of the available sources" and "historical imagination."

In the biblical books, notes on the lives and experiences of women are to be found only in the margin. The Bible has not only been written by men in patriarchal societies, over the centuries the Bible has been mostly interpreted by men. But it is exciting what can be discovered when one starts to ask and to look.

The main resources for this article were In Memory of Her: A Feminist Reconstruction of Christians Origins by Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza and The Corinthian Women Prophets: A Reconstruction through Paul's Rhetoric by Antoinette Wire. Furthermore works by Gerhard Theissen, Henneke Gülzow and Luise Schottroff on the social-historical context of the early Christian communities have added valuable insights. Last, but not least, I have been very inspired by Walter J. Hollenweger's Conflict in Corinth together with his theoretical reflections on the value of narrative exegesis.

The participants in the presentation

Phoebe (Romans 16: 1ff)

She is "the only person in the Pauline literature to receive an official letter of recommendation and...she is given three substantive titles--sister, diakonos, and prostatis.."¹. From these titles it can be concluded that Phoebe was an official teacher and missionary in the church of Cenchreae.

Chloe (1 Cor. 1:11)

The "people of Chloe" mentioned in 1 Corinthians must have been "representatives of the lower strata of society", probably slaves or freed slaves.²

Crispus (1 Cor. 1:14; Acts 18:8)

Crispus was baptized by Paul (1 Cor. 1:14). According to Acts, Crispus was the leader of the synagogue in Corinth before he became Christian. In this position he was not only responsible for reading the scriptures and preaching, but also for the upkeep of the synagogue, which meant that he must have been a propertied and wealthy man.³

Gajus (1 Cor. 1:14; Romans 16:23)

Gajus is also one or the few Paul baptized himself (1 Cor. 1:14). It is mentioned that the whole community met in his home which gives reason for assuming that he had some property.⁴

The main biblical references: exegetical conclusions

Galatians 3:28

In its core Gal. 3:28 is an old baptismal formula, which is likely to stem from the pre-Pauline missionary movement.⁵ Pointing out the general acceptance of male religious privileges among Greeks, Romans, Persians and Jews in the first century Fiorenza concludes that: "The baptismal declaration in Gal. 3:28 offered a new religious vision to women and slaves, it denied all male religious prerogatives in the Christian community based on gender roles."⁶

1 Corinthians 14:34

Many scholars have accepted 1 Cor. 14:33b-36 as a post-Pauline interpolation.. This assumption is based on theological rather than textual-critical arguments. Although I am personally more convinced that these verses are a later interpolation, I see the point in explaining these verses in the present context,⁷ especially because the fatal wirkungsgeschichte (the history of effects or consequences) of 1 Cor. 14:33b-36 cannot be eradicated by proving their un-Pauline character.

A presentation with guests from Corinth

(Note: The characters in this presentation comprise Chloe, Crispus from Corinth, Gajus, Phoebe from Cenchreae and Ursel from the World Alliance of Reformed Churches. Ursel is, of course, a contemporary person. She may be replaced by whomever is introducing the presentation in your setting.)

Ursel: I would like to welcome you all to this presentation entitled Leadership of Women in the Early Christian Church. I invite you to follow me to Corinth in the first century. The old Greek Corinth has been destroyed by the Romans, but under the rule of Caesar a colony has been founded at the same place. Because of its advantageous location Corinth has become a flourishing trade town. The young Christian movement has spread from Palestine to Asia Minor and we find a very lively Christian community in Corinth.

I would like you to meet some of the people of this community and hear from them about their lives and their commitment to Jesus Christ. They are going to share with us their beliefs and experiences. Here is Phoebe from Cenchreae

Phoebe: Cenchreae is a small seaport about 7 kilometres from Corinth. I am one of the leaders of this church and responsible for teaching and mission. For me it is self-evident that women actively take part in the life and the work of His church. Jesus has called women and men to follow him. Just think of Mary Magdalene. She was the first person to whom he entrusted spreading the Good News of his resurrection.

Ursel: Here is Crispus. He was the leader of the local synagogue in Corinth.

Crispus: That was before I became Christian. But then Paul came to Corinth, that changed my life totally. Oh, I remember it very well. At first Paul was not very successful in our town and people just laughed at him. So did I. When he asked to preach in my synagogue, I refused. But my neighbour, Titus Justus, a worshipper of God, not a Jew, hosted him. And then I heard him preaching. His message of the crucified Lord changed my life totally. Just as it had happened to Paul himself. At my baptism Paul talked about the verse: "There is neither Jew, nor Greek, neither free nor slave, but you are all one in Christ."

Ursel: Here is Chloe, a strong woman with a temper, who has become a very committed Christian.

Chloe: Crispus, you know that sometimes Paul shortens the baptismal formula. I really get angry when you leave out women. I have the feeling that you can't accept that women have the same rights in the Christian community. But sorry, you asked me to present myself first, before we get into a discussion. There is not much to say about myself. I live down at the harbour in Corinth, trading with cloth. My whole house has become Christian.

Ursel: And Gajus...

Gajus: Like Crispus I was baptized by Paul. The Good News of Jesus Christ, our Lord and Saviour, has challenged me. Our community in Corinth is now really growing. As I have enough space, we often meet in my house for common worship services. As you probably know already, it is not always peaceful and easy in our community. Nevertheless I believe that our faith in the uniting Lord allows us to deal openly with conflicts.

Ursel: Thank you all for presenting yourselves briefly. You have already touched upon very interesting points. I would like to question you further now, get to know more. My first question goes to Chloe. You said that you are trading with cloth. It sounded as if you were responsible for leading the business. Is that possible for a women in your society?

Chloe: Yes, why not. Do you have prejudices against women leading a business? I thought in your society women are "emancipated", doing all kinds of things on their own.

Ursel: I didn't mean to question your ability to lead a business, Chloe. It's a serious question about the position of women in the society of the first century.

Chloe: Sorry, for being defensive, but it is not that easy for women in our times. Okay there are quite a number of women leading their own businesses, like myself. In this regard the Roman Empire really gives us some opportunity. The Roman law allows women to administer their own means, even if they are married. That is real progress and innovation.

Urse: What of the economic situation in Corinth? Surely this effects the place of women in a society. Maybe Gajus could inform us, you are also a businessman, aren't you?

Gajus: Not really a businessman. I work in the great Corinthian trade bank. We have commercial connections from Rome to Alexandria. Corinth has become a flourishing trade town over the last decades. It has an advantageous location for trade and commerce. A lot of people from different cultures and backgrounds have settled here. May be you don't know that Corinth was totally destroyed by the Romans. Only about 100 years ago it was rebuilt as a Roman Colony.⁸

Ursel: It sounds as if Corinth is a good place to live. But are all people that prosperous in there?

Chloe: Of course not. There are a lot of hard working and poor people, as well as a lot of slaves living in Corinth. But they don't have names (and so none of them got invited to this meeting).

Ursel: But aren't they members of the church? Didn't Jesus preach his gospel especially to the poor and the marginalized?

Gajus: Certainly, a number of slaves have become Christians recently. The gospel really attracts them very much. I have, for instance, asked some of the secretary-slaves in my bank to get to know our community and to join our worship services. This is how everyone of us spreads the Good News where he lives and works. Chloe could tell you something about poor people, her house has become a special meeting place for them.

Chloe: That's true, I have told you that my whole household has become Christian. We are a Christian community which has created a church in my house. Since I am Christian, the relationship to the people in my house has changed significantly. It doesn't count any more whether they are slaves or free persons, we try to live and work together as a fellowship of equals according to the gospel of Jesus Christ.

Phoebe: I always admire sister Chloe. She is actually practising the gospel. She has really put on Christ at her baptism and lives accordingly. That's what has brought me to Christianity, committed people like Chloe who live what they have learned. People who live out the belief that whether we are poor or rich, slave or free, male or female, we are one fellowship in Jesus Christ. Here the privileges of gender, background or race don't count any more. This vision of equality is especially attractive for women in our society.

Ursel: You have again touched upon the famous declaration of the unity of all people in Christ. Crispus you said that you heard it first at your baptism. You are a free man and not poor. What does this declaration mean to you?

Crispus: I tell you, it was and still is quite challenging for me. But I rather see it in a spiritual way, something which will be fulfilled in heaven. Here on earth we are still bound to the orders of the world. God himself has created the world in this way. I have had long discussions with Paul and I know that he agrees. He has advocated the slaves to accept their status⁹ - and the women as well.

Phoebe: Oh Crispus, the participation of women really gives you a hard time, doesn't it? But if you are referring to creation I would like to remind you that both, male and female, have been created in God's image. That's the origin of the old baptismal formula. Like Chloe I am convinced that we are called to live according to God's new order already here on earth.

Gajus: But Phoebe the women in our assemblies are really going too far. Sometimes our worship services become too ecstatic with all these women speaking in tongues and prophesying. What picture do we give to the world? As Christians we are always watched with suspicion in the Roman Empire. The women should behave a little more decently and modestly.

Chloe: Don't come with the veil now, Gajus. I can't believe how Paul in his recent letter is raging on and on about the hairstyle of women in the assembly.

Crispus: Paul is right in insisting on the good order, we have to give a good example to the world. In this sense I also appreciate that Paul is admonishing women to be silent in the assembly.

Phoebe: I can't understand how Paul could write that. He who is always talking about the gifts of the spirit and the freedom Jesus Christ has brought us. If the spirit moves us we can't keep silent.

Crispus: But it's too much, Phoebe. All this disorderly speaking in tongues in the worship services. Paul just wants us to keep more order.

Chloe: Order, order, I can't hear this word any more. In Christ there is a new order. Let me remind you: "neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, neither male nor female". For me that's the core of the new life in Christ and it's meant for real life not just for some future life in heaven. But I guess you men are nor ready to give up your male prerogatives that's why you insist so much on "order".

Crispus: Don't become impertinent, Chloe. I always try to have understanding for your temper and I admire your commitment for the Christian cause. ...

Ursel: We seem to have come to the heart of the problem. Namely, the community of women and men in the church. Apparently it is not easy to be a discipleship of equals according to Jesus example. But I would like to withdraw from the emotional side and to hear some examples of women who made important contributions to the growth of your churches. Gajus, whom do you know.

Gajus: Humm, let me think...ah yes, Aquila and Prisca, everybody in the Corinthian community knows and appreciates them. They have lived and worked in Corinth for quite some time. They are now working closely with Paul.

Chloe: But Prisca is much more active in the church. That's what you men can't accept. In your "order" the man is the head of a couple and a woman without man....

Crispus: Don't start arguing again, Chloe. We appreciate the contribution of women in the mission field, no doubt...

Ursel: Maybe Phoebe could inform us about some other women. You seem to be very involved in missionary work.

Phoebe: I will add some other women's names with pleasure. But I should start by explaining that the house-churches are the core of the missionary work in our time. Maybe you know that already. It's like Chloe and Gajus described it. Wherever a household becomes Christian, it radiates and attracts others to join.¹⁰ Women do play an important role in the foundation and support of these house churches. I think of Apphia in Philippi,¹¹ Lydia in Thyatira¹² and Nymphe in Laodizea¹³... I still can't believe how Paul could write in a letter that women should be silent in the assembly. He who always appreciated women as equal co-workers in the mission field. "I shudder to think that some future leader of the church could refer to him saying "women cannot become part of the ministry of the Word because Jesus did not entrust the apostolic charge to them." When I met him recently I questioned him about it. "He laughed uproariously and exclaimed, 'Phoebe, you are a person with the strangest notions. If any of my letters do survive, only someone bewitched will fail to see the difference between my teaching of the Good News and my ramblings about cultural problems and situations. People from another age will easily disregard the cultural trappings and get to the heart of the message." ¹⁴

Notes