Women in the Korean Church

A historical survey

Mija Sa

The Korean Protestant church has been of great interest to the rest of the world for several decades because of its unusual rate of church growth. Countless Korean people have received the Gospel, and Christianity has played a very significant role in enlightening the country in educational, cultural and social areas.

It is more than 100 years since the Protestant church was introduced to Korea. Without the -sacrificing efforts of those who were pioneers the Christian church we enjoy today would not exist. And among these efforts the contributions of Christian women must be emphasized.

The introduction of Christianity to Korea offered opportunities for Korean women to live in a radically different fashion. They received education, and were liberated from the burden of illiteracy. This was possible because of the idea of equality of human persons, and the early missionaries' emphasis on the educational ministry at the church. These new opportunities, though few in number, eventually formed a consciousness within the women in the church who began to recognize themselves as human beings. And thus began the reformation of the status of women.

The Christian population of Korea at present is about ten millions, roughly 25 per cent of the total population, and still growing. Of these ten millions, about 70 per cent are women. We cannot overemphasize their extraordinary contributions to church life and to church growth. It is unfortunate that the Korean church has not been able to recognize their work: they are either ignored, or treated as second-class citizens.

The Korean Protestant church is at present confronted with a heavy responsibility to mature, to shift from quantity to quality in terms of church growth in the future. At the same time, it is under pressure to present a clear vision of what the church should be in the post-modern world. Needless to say, women's issues have to be included in that vision. Conventional ways of thinking and attitudes toward women deprive the church community of a true sense of balance. This hinders the maturity of the church and distorts the message of the gospel.

It is encouraging that in September 1994 the Presbyterian Church of Korea (Tonghap) finally passed a bill permitting the ordination of women. It is sixty years since the issue was first raised in 1933. Even though this General Assembly's resolution has to be finalized by the presbyteries in 1995, it is worth hailing as 'a historical event' for women in the PCK who until now have been alienated from almost every important decision-making process in the church. We hope that this event will mark the beginning of meaningful change for the status of women in the PCK. For the conventional view which prevails throughout the church still regards women as inferior to men. The PCK has a long way to go in respect of women.

This paper will survey women's place in Korean society from a historical perspective, so that we can be able to see where we have been and where we are now, and will try to show what the Korean church (and especially the PCK) should do to enable women to participate more actively in church life. I believe that, in preparing for the 21st century, the Christian church in Korea has to take women's issues very seriously, for it is clear that women will continue to form the major part of the church population in the future.

The place of women in Korean society

It is well-known that in early times, both in the east and the west, the status of women was very high. In some cases, women held higher positions than men and were committed to more important roles. It is ironic that women's status has been lowered as history proceeds and the respect women enjoyed in earlier days has been drastically changed. Human history is mainly a history of patriarchy.

The history of Korea fits into the general pattern. Historical records show clearly that the discrimination and prejudice against women which we now experience was not suffered to the same extent by our ancestors until the beginning of the Koryo dynasty.¹ During the period of the Three Kingdoms (i.e. Silla, Kokuryo and Baekje) when Buddhism was the predominant religion, records show that the society was more open and liberal toward women. The Silla dynasty even had queens to rule their country.

From the middle to the late period of the Koryo dynasty, the position of women was degraded almost to that of slaves. The 'Virgin Tribute' in the late period of Koryo was a shameful system which is without parallel in the history of Korean women.² But the decisive period for the fall of women's status is the Chosun dynasty. Confucianism, the political ideology during the Chosun dynasty, consolidated the patriarchal ruling system. It became, not merely the basis of a strictly king-centred social position system, but also a general norm of social order. The view of womanhood during that period was 'a faithful servant cannot serve two masters, and a sincere wife cannot honour two husbands.' The relation between king and subject was represented by the morality of the servant, and that of husband and wife was represented by the idea of the sincere wife, who serves and follows her husband as the subject serves the king³. Furthermore, emphasis on the Three Ways to Follow, the Seven Valid Causes for Divorce, and the Etiquette of Matrimony caused women to be brought up to cultivate traits of submission and obedience. These Confucian ideas helped to root deeply the ideology of dominance of men over women. Women were given less and less value as human beings.

It is interesting to look at the educational principle for girls during that time, which was 'women should be taught in obedience.' This principle is explained in the Three Ways To Follow, teaching three virtues which every girl was expected to attain. First, a girl (or women) should follow her parents, especially her father; second; she should follow her husband when she was married; and third; she should follow her son when she lost her husband.⁴ The Confucian ideology, as well as the value system derived from it which created a myth of men's superiority to women, has been a powerful source of influence to dehumanize women even to this day. The idea of the purity of women, the myth of the wise mother and good wife, the preference for a boy, and so forth, can all find their origins in the Confucian tradition. These myths and fixed ideas about women have to be abolished.

Japanese domination over Korea brought even more suppression and pain to Korean women. Besides general suppressions which the oppressed people had to endure, women suffered even more because of a new type of oppression: treating women as sex objects. The climax of this oppression was the Volunteer Corps of Korean Women during the World War II, probably one of the most cruel and humiliating events in the history of women. It is a history of the infringement of human rights in which thousands of Korean women were forcefully recruited to be sexual comforters of Japanese soldiers during the World War II.⁵ This has been a hot issue between Korea and Japan for post-war compensation.

Our brief historical survey shows that Korean women have lived without receiving due respect as human persons and have not yet found their proper place in society. It is true that Korea has already become a late-industrial society and has made splendid progress in all spheres. But Korea is still dominated by the idea of male superiority, and sex difference works unceasingly as a basis of sex discrimination.

The influence of Christianity on Korean women

In the late period of the Chosun dynasty, the introduction of Catholicism, the Tonghak (Eastern Learning) Movement, and the idea of freedom which had been introduced from the west in the 19th century, began to have an influence on Korean women. They helped women to be aware of their situation in a society in which the traditional idea of the superiority of men was dominant. 'New women' began to appear who saw themselves as independent, and free from the burdens of tradition and suppression. This was, of course, based on the idea of freedom and equality.⁶

This idea of the equality of human beings, especially the equality of women and men, originated from the tide of liberal thought that had changed western societies radically during the 18th and 19th centuries. And it came to be more emphasized by being united with the ideas of Catholicism, which had already been introduced to Korea, and of Protestantism, which just had arrived. Christianity opened a new horizon in the life of Korean women, and brought fundamental changes. The abolition of discrimination against the lower class, or illegitimate children, and the repeal of the prohibition of remarriage are some examples.⁷

Education was foremost among the activities of the early missionaries in relation to women.⁸ Robert Maclay, an American Methodist missionary based in Japan, visited Korea from June 24 to July 8, 1884, and successfully received permission from King Kojong for educational and medical activities in Korea. This was a very significant event in terms of Christian mission in Korea.⁹ Korea had prohibited Christian mission until that time, and the king's permission made it possible to introduce the new western type of education.¹⁰ The first American missionary sent to Korea was Horace N. Allen, a Presbyterian and a medical doctor who came to Korea in 1884. Horace Grant Underwood, an American Presbyterian, and Henry G. Apenzeller, an American Methodist, arrived together on Easter day 1885.¹¹ As their first missionary work, they established schools, including schools for women. Despite initial difficulties in recruiting students, these schools eventually produced outstanding women leaders who were equipped with modern thought and consciousness.

In a time when the society was ruled by a family code of men's superiority to women, the new education based on the spirit of Christianity enabled women to become aware of their unique individualities as human beings and taught them that man and woman were equal and the same.

Also important were the church's efforts to abolish illiteracy. The Bible was translated into Korean, making it possible for many people to read it directly. This had a revolutionary impact. Illiterate women in the church also had various opportunities to learn reading and writing through the church's educational ministry. It brought a dramatic change to their lives, a true liberation from the darkness. Church school education and involvement in church life played a crucial role in transforming the quality of life of church members, and especially of women.

The introduction of Christianity to Korea brought a much-needed enlightenment. Through a variety of educational activities, the early missionary efforts contributed to the change. And the idea of the equality of all human beings based on the Bible awakened women's consciousness. Although small in number, especially on a national scale, Christian women in Korea were able to see that they were no different than men. Women who found themselves in Christ worked hard for the church, as they continue to do today. This means that we cannot talk about church growth in Korea without mentioning the contributions they have made.

Roles and positions of women in the Korean Church

As we have seen, Korean people during the Chosun dynasty led their lives in accordance with strict Confucian precepts. 'A boy and a girl should not sit together after the age of 7' was on such precept. It followed that it was unthinkable for women to attend church while men were there.¹² It was a radical move, therefore, to allow women and men to participate in worship in the same congregation, although all the churches draped large curtains between the two sides so that the men and women would not be visible to each other during the service! There are records which show that this custom continued well after the year 1900.¹³

In spite of the difficulties, the first four women were baptized in 1888, and the number of women in the church grew faster as time went on. The missionaries were very sympathetic to Korean women, and were specially interested in evangelizing them. At the first meeting of the Council of Missions in 1893, they adopted policies for their missionary work. One of these was that 'the conversion of women and training of Christian girls should be a special aim, since mothers exercise so important an influence over future generations.'¹⁴ Directly or indirectly, this policy helped to increase the number of women in the church.

The translation of the Bible into Korean made it possible for women, the uneducated, and the lower classes to read the Bible directly. The emphasis on the Korean language (Hangul) in the church opened the door for women to receive education. Also noteworthy was the policy of individual evangelization, by women missionaries, of Korean women in their homes. This was extremely effective for ministering to the Korean women, who were not free to go out. The early women missionaries made a great contribution not only to evangelizing but also to enlightening the women of Korea.

As their numbers grew, women began to get involved actively in the life of the church and to find their proper roles. Missionaries found themselves in need of assistants who were capable of teaching them Korean culture and customs. Out of this need the Korean churches eventually established a structure, unique to Korea, of 'Bible Women.'¹⁵ This still exists today.

As the churches grew, a more systematic organization was needed for women's activities. The Presbyterian Church of Korea founded the National Organization of the Korean Presbyterian Women in 1928.¹⁶ This is one of the most significant events in the history of the Korean church. After more than 60 years, the Presbyterian Women still have an important place in all the ministries of local PCK churches. The ministerial scope of the National Organization of the Presbyterian Women is on an unforgettable level in the General Assembly of the PCK.

The social consciousness of church women was also increasing. As a result, movements of resistance against Japanese suppression, or to enlighten women, began. One such movement was the YWCA.¹⁷ It has become a powerful and influential Christian organization in Korean society. Its goal is to exert every effort to change the consciousness of women, to improve their quality of life, and to establish the kingdom of God on earth.

Church women actively participated in the 3.1 Movement (1 March 1919), the most representative independence movement against Japanese suppression. The action taken by Yu Kwan Soon, a young student from Ewha girls' school, as well as a devout Christian, was one of the most impressive events to be remembered in our history. But this is only one example of many. After the liberation from Japanese occupation in 1945, Christian women continued to carry out their share of responsibilities for the church and the society at large.

The situation of women today in the Korean church, particularly in the PCK, is regrettable. Compared with earlier days, women are more alienated and restricted. Attitudes towards women in the church are still strongly controlled by traditional ideas. They are expected to be satisfied with a subordinate role as second-class citizens.¹⁸ They have been excluded from all policy- or decision-making processes. Despite the resolution in favour of the ordination of women at the PCK General Assembly in 1994, we still have a long way to go until the overall ethos of the church is changed, so that men and women will work together as equal partners.

Conclusion

Christianity has played a meaningful role in liberating women in Korea from servitude, and in opening the door for them to live their lives as human beings on the basis of the Gospel. At the same time, women have made important contributions to the church ever since Christianity was introduced to Korea more than 100 years ago. During the General Assembly meeting in September 1994, the Presbyterian Church of Korea approved the ordination of women, which will enable the members of the church to work together now as equal partners in the church. We have been waiting for this for more than 60 years. This is a true achievement of the priesthood of all the believers.

Now is the time for the PCK and her members to think seriously how we can overcome the still existing discriminations against women in the church. This will secure the environment in which women, without any obstacles, will be able to play their part in the church. The most urgent task is to identify existing prejudices and discriminations against women in the church, and try to find the way to overcome them. We know well that the issues involved here are not theological, but cultural and conventional. However, both men and women are responsible for solving these problems. Women themselves are often more prejudiced than men against a more prominent role for women in the church, or in Korean society at large. We cannot expect change unless women become aware that they are equal to men in every sense of the word.

Secondly, when the women's ordination bill is ratified by presbyteries in 1995, the PCK should be confronted with the challenge to accept and use women's leadership. Women in PCK will be faced with the same challenge. It is clear that for them it will be much more difficult to handle. The most realistic preparation for women to meet this challenge is equip themselves for leadership on the basis of professionalism and to develop leadership abilities by exercising responsibility.

A third challenge is to raise the consciousness of lay women and lead them to participate in a wide range of church activities as in earlier days in Korean church history. Western womanist theology can be a good resource for this purpose. However, one should be careful about using it too enthusiastically, because of the differences between the west and Korea. The goal of the consciousness-raising efforts is to establish a true partnership between men and women which will bring about an authentic humanization. In other words, a restoration of self-esteem and self-respect as children of God which will lead us men and women to become authentic individuals.

At this juncture in history, the PCK foresees radical changes in every aspect of Korean society. The church should be ready to bear the burden of responsibilities in responding to these changes. Almost all the well-known futurologists predict that the leadership of women will be in great demand in the 21st century. Our church has to take this matter seriously, and must make every effort to restructure the church system so that women may be given their rightful place and status.

Professor Dr Mija Sa of the Presbyterian Church of Korea teaches Psychology and Religion at the Presbyterian College and Theological Seminary, Seoul, Korea.

Notes